Watch the new season of MinuteBody - and get access to both CuriosityStream and Nebula - at https://curiositystream.com/minuteearth. People all around the world tend to represent time via space, but there’s no consensus on which way time goes. PREORDER OUR FIRST BOOK (out October 12th): DFTBA (get SUPER-cool book bundles here!): https://store.dftba.com/collections/minuteearth Amazon - http://bit.ly/MinuteEarthExplains Bookshop.org - http://bit.ly/MinuteEarthexplains Barnes and Noble - http://bit.ly/Minuteearthexplains Indigo (Canada)- http://bit.ly/MinuteearthExplains SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* Kate Yoshida | Script Writer, Narrator and Director Sarah Berman (@sarahjberman) | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation Nathaniel Schroeder | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia i Rius David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich • Peter Reich Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** Bergen, B. K. & Lau, T. T. C. (2012) Writing direction affects how people map space onto time. Frontiers in Psychology 3:109. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00109/full Boroditsky, L. (2000). Metaphoric Structuring: Understanding time through spatial metaphors. Cognition, 75(1), 1-28. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0010027799000736 Casasanto, D. & Boroditsky, L. (2008). Time in the mind: Using space to think about time. Cognition 106 (2):579-593 http://lera.ucsd.edu/papers/duration-cognition-2008.pdf Majid, A., Gaby, A., & Boroditsky, L. (2013). Time in terms of space. Frontiers in Psychology, 4: 554. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00554/full Núñez, R., Cooperrider, K., Doan, D., & Wassmann, J. (2012). Contours of time: Topographic construals of past, present, and future in the Yupno valley of Papua New Guinea. Cognition, 124(1), 25– 35. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0010027712000571

Get your butt-, er, book here: https://www.minuteearth.com/books/ Hyenas communicate via an information-dense physical medium (hyena butter) - and now MinuteEarth does too (book). SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* Kate Yoshida | Script Writer and Narrator David Goldenberg | Director Arcadi Garcia i Rius | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation Nathaniel Schroeder | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia i Rius David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich • Peter Reich Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida OTHER CREDITS ***************** Hyena audio clips by Dr. Kenna Lehmann OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** Hofer, H., M. L. East, I. Sammang, and & M. Dehnhard. 2001. Analysis of volatile compounds in scent-marks of spotted hyenas (Crocuta crocuta) and their possible function in olfactory communication. Chemical Signals in Vertebrates 9:141–148. Retrieved from: https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4615-0671-3_18 Theis, K.R., Venkataraman, A., Dycus, J. A., Koonter, K.D.S., Schmitt-Matzen, E.N., Wagner. A.P., Holekamp, K.E., & Schmidt, T.M (2013) Symbiotic bacteria appear to mediate hyena social odors. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 110: 19832–19837. Retrieved from: https://www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.1306477110 Theis, K. R., Schmidt, T. M. & Holekamp, K. E. (2012) Evidence for a bacterial mechanism for group-specific social odors among hyenas. Scientific Reports 2, 615. Retrieved from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3431069/ MinuteEarth (2021). MinuteEarth Explains: How Did Whales Get So Big? & Other Curious Questions about Animals, Nature, Geology and Planet Earth. Retrieved from: https://www.MinuteEarth.com/books

Offset your carbon footprint with Wren! They ll plant 10 extra trees for each of the first 100 people who sign up at https://www.wren.co/start/minuteearth. Extreme weather sometimes happens in very specific areas thanks to extreme surface temperature differences. LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: Evapotranspiration: the return of water to the atmosphere from the ground surface. Troposphere: The lowest region of the Earth’s atmosphere, extending usually to around 10 km above the Earth’s surface. Tropopause: The top-most boundary of the troposphere. Low Pressure System: An area of relatively low pressure that draws air into it, causing converging winds. Micro-climate: The climate of a very small or restricted area. Heat Island: An urban area that has higher average temperatures than its surrounding due to the heat absorption of materials like concrete and asphalt. SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* David Goldenberg | Script Writer, Narrator and Director Sarah Berman | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation Nathaniel Schroeder | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia i Rius David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich • Peter Reich Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida OTHER CREDITS ***************** Articles from Denver Post, Denverite, BBC, itv News,The Independent, Weather Channel, NBC 10 Philadelphia, WFMZ 69, WQAD 8 abc, KSDK 5 OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** MIT Concrete Sustainability Hub. Topic Summary: Mitigating Climate Change with Reflective Pavements. (2021). Retrieved from: https://cshub.mit.edu/sites/default/files/images/Albedo%201113_0.pdf Randel W. J., Jensen E. J., (2013) Physical processes in the tropical tropopause layer and their roles in a changing climate. Nature Geoscience Vol 6, pp 169. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo1733 Kurn, D M, Bretz, S E, Huang, B, and Akbari, H. (1994) "The potential for reducing urban air temperatures and energy consumption through vegetative cooling." United States OSTI, Retrieved from: https://www.osti.gov/biblio/10180633-potential-reducing-urban-air-temperatures-energy-consumption-through-vegetative-cooling Lejeune, Q., Davin, E.L., Gudmundsson, L. et al. (2018) Historical deforestation locally increased the intensity of hot days in northern mid-latitudes. Nature Clim Change 8, 386–390. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-018-0131-z Ma J., Chadwick R., Seo K. H., Dong C., Huang G., Foltz G. R., Jiang J. H. (2018) Responses of the Tropical Atmospheric Circulation to Climate Change and Connection to the Hydrological Cycle. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Vol. 46:549–580. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-082517010102 Terzi, L. (2021). Personal communication. Belgian Nuclear Research Center.

GiveWell is matching donations from first-time donors dollar for dollar up to $250. Click on https://bit.ly/3rHPv9a to donate and be sure to use the fundraiser code MINUTEEARTH at checkout to make sure your donation gets matched. The most cost-effective way to save a human life right now is to help give Vitamin A drops to certain groups of people, thanks to the health effects of the drops and the ease of their distribution. LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: - Vitamin A: A group of nutrients called retinoids used in several different processes in the human body. - Malaria: A serious disease carried by parasites in a certain type of mosquito that feeds on humans. - Value of Life: The economic value used to quantify the benefit of avoiding a fatality - Upstream interventions: Approaches to healthcare that address root causes rather than symptoms. - Night Blindness: An early symptom of Vitamin A deficiency in which the eye is unable to process low levels of light. SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* David Goldenberg | Script Writer, Narrator and Director Sarah Berman | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation Aldo de Vos | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia i Rius David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich • Peter Reich Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** Linus Pauling Institute. Vitamin A. Micronutrient Information Center. Oregon State University. Retrieved from: https://lpi.oregonstate.edu/mic/vitamins/vitamin-A#introduction Imdad, A, Mayo‐Wilson, E, Herzer, K, and Bhutta, ZA (2017). Vitamin A supplementation for preventing morbidity and mortality in children from six months to five years of age. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. Vol 3. Retrieved from: https://www.cochranelibrary.com/cdsr/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD008524.pub3/full GiveWell. Vitamin A Supplementation. Retrieved from: https://www.givewell.org/international/technical/programs/vitamin-A GiveWell. 2020 Cost-Effectiveness Analysis. Retrieved from: https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/16XOOB1oWse1ICbF0OVXUYtwWwpvG3mxAAQ6LYAAndQU/edit#gid=1377543212 Anna J. MacMonegle, James Nonnemaker, Jennifer C. Duke, Matthew C. Farrelly, Xiaoquan Zhao, Janine C. Delahanty, Alexandria A. Smith, Pamela Rao, Jane A. Allen (2018). Cost-Effectiveness Analysis of The Real Cost Campaign s Effect on Smoking Prevention. American Journal of Preventive Medicine. Vol 55:3 (319-325). Retrieved from: https://www.ajpmonline.org/article/S0749-3797(18)31877-4/fulltext Our World in Data. Causes of Death. Retrieved from: https://ourworldindata.org/causes-of-death#cause-by-cause

Watch the new season of MinuteBody - and get access to both CuriosityStream and Nebula - at https://curiositystream.com/minuteearth Bitcoin and other blockchain technologies, like NFTs, work a lot like reindeer mating. LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: - Bitcoin: a digital currency known as a cryptocurrency, which uses a proof-of-work consensus to validate transactions and create new units of Bitcoin. - Proof-of-work: a decentralized consensus mechanism that requires members of a network to expend effort solving an arbitrary mathematical puzzle to prevent malicious activity - Blockchain: a record of transactions made in Bitcoin or another cryptocurrency maintained across several linked computers, which can also be used in non-cryptocurrency applications - Mining: the process of validating transactions and creating new Bitcoin or other cryptocurrencies - Sexual selection: a form of natural selection driven by competition between members of a species of one sex for access to mating partners of another sex that favors certain characteristics SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* Julián Gustavo Gómez (@TheJulianGomez) | Script Writer and Narrator Ever Salazar | Director Aldo de Vos | Illustration, Video Editing, Animation, and Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia i Rius David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich • Peter Reich Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** Antonopoulos, Andreas M. "Mastering bitcoin." (2019) Brennan, P. “Sexual Selection.” (2010) Nature Education Knowledge 3(10):79 https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/sexual-selection-13255240/ Cambridge Bitcoin Electricity Consumption Index (CBECI), University of Cambridge, https://ccaf.io/cbeci/index. de Vries, Alex. “Bitcoin Energy Consumption Index.” Digiconomist, 6 Nov. 2021, https://digiconomist.net/bitcoin-energy-consumption. Goss, Richard J. Deer antlers: regeneration, function and evolution. Academic Press, 2012. Panko, Ben. “Go Big or Go Generic: How Sexual Selection Is like Advertising.” Smithsonian Magazine, Smithsonian Institution, 6 Dec. 2016, https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/either-go-big-or-go-generic-how-sexual-selection-advertising-180961311/.

To learn more about restoration action - and get involved - visit RESTOR from the Crowther Lab at https://restor.eco. Soil doesn t seem like it s "alive", yet it functions like a living thing in lots of key ways. LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: Soil health: the continued capacity of soil to function as a vital living system, within ecosystem and land-use boundaries, to sustain biological productivity, promote the quality of air and water environments, and maintain plant, animal, and human health Living system: an open self-organizing life form that interacts with its environment Ecosystem services: varied benefits to humans provided by the natural environment and from healthy ecosystems SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* Kate Yoshida | Script Writer, Narrator and Director Sarah Berman | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation Nathaniel Schroeder | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia i Rius David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich • Peter Reich Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** Harshberger, JW. (1911) The Soil, A Living Thing. Reprinted from Science, N.S. vol. 33 No. 854. 469.1 https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.33.854.741 Minami K. (2021) “Soil is a living substance”. Soil Science and Plant Nutrition 67: 26-30. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00380768.2020.1827939 Rattal Lal, personal communication (11/19/21) Asmeret Berhe, personal communication (12/2/21)

One of Earth s biggest cells is one you re probably really familiar with. See what we re cooking up over at our BRAND-NEW channel, MinuteFood: https://www.youtube.com/user/minutefood LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: - Cell: the smallest unit that can execute all the activities required for life - Egg: the organic vessel containing the zygote in which an embryo develops until it can survive on its own - Fertilization: the union of male and female gametes during sexual reproduction to form a zygote SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* Kate Yoshida | Script Writer, Narrator and Director Arcadi Garcia i Rius | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation Nathaniel Schroeder | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Lizah van der Aart • Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia i Rius David Goldenberg • Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich Henry Reich • Peter Reich • Ever Salazar Alexander Vidal • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, et al. (2002). Eggs. Molecular Biology of the Cell (4th edition). New York: Garland Science. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26842/ Gilbert S. (2013). ""Early Development in Birds"". Developmental Biology (10th ed.). Sunderland: Sinauer Associates. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10070/ Marshall WF, Young KD, Swaffer M, Wood E. (2012) What determines cell size? BMC Biololgy 10: 101. https://bmcbiol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1741-7007-10-101 Starck J (2020) Morphology of the avian yolk sac, Journal of Morphology 282:7, (959-972). https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/jmor.21262

For more adventure visit www.hopscotchtheglobe.com From making candles to visiting a pencil sharpener museum to learning to play the washboard, this is Adventures in Hocking Hills Part 3. Follow me on: Facebook - http://www.facebook.com/hopscotchtheglobe Twitter - https://twitter.com/HTGlobe @HTGlobe Travel Blog - http://www.hopscotchtheglobe.com/ Places visited in this video: http://www.columbuswashboard.com/ http://www.1800hocking.com/whattodo/pencil_sharpener_museum http://www.windchimeshopsales.com/ A special thanks to: Amy Weirick and Jamie Wright http://www.weirickcommunications.com/ Music in this video is provided by: Kevin MacLeod - http://incompetech.com/m/c/royalty-free/ Licensed under Creative Commons: By Attribution 3.0 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/

Check out our brand new channels: MinuteFood and MinuteMinis! MinuteFood | https://www.youtube.com/minutefood?sub_confirmation=1 MinuteMinis | https://www.youtube.com/minuteminis?sub_confirmation=1 MinuteEarth Explains Book | https://www.minuteearth.com/books MinuteEarth | https://www.youtube.com/minuteearth?sub_confirmation=1 MinutePhysics | https://www.youtube.com/minutephysics?sub_confirmation=1 MinuteLabs | https://minutelabs.io/ SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* David Goldenberg | Script Writer and Director Kate Yoshida | Narrator Lizah van der Aart | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation Aldo de Vos | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Lizah van der Aart • Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia i Rius David Goldenberg • Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich Henry Reich • Peter Reich • Ever Salazar Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176

Order your copy of “How To Prevent The Next Pandemic” here: https://www.amazon.com/Prevent-Next-Pandemic-Bill-Gates/dp/0593534484 The most likely cause of the next pandemic will be the “spillover” of a disease from one of a select group of animals with particular immune system traits and interactions with humans. LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: - Zoonosis: A disease that can be transmitted to humans by animals - Hyper reservoirs: Animals that naturally are home to multiple infectious agents. - Spillover: Transmission of a zoonosis from an animal reservoir to a human. - Life history strategy: An evolutionary strategy that involves tradeoffs among growth, survival, and reproduction. SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* David Goldenberg | Script Writer, Narrator and Director Alexander Vidal | Illustration Sarah Berman | Video Editing and Animation Aldo de Vos | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Lizah van der Aart • Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia i Rius David Goldenberg • Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich Henry Reich • Peter Reich • Ever Salazar Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** Keesing, F., and Ostefld, R. (2021). Impacts of biodiversity and biodiversity loss on zoonotic diseases. PNAS, 118 (17) e2023540118. Retrieved from: https://www.pnas.org/doi/pdf/10.1073/pnas.2023540118 Han, B., Schmidt, J.P., Bowden, S., and Drake, J. (2015). Rodent reservoirs of future zoonotic diseases. PNAS, 112 (22) 7039-7044. Retrieved from: https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1501598112 Balderrama-Gutierrez G, Milovic A, Cook VJ, Islam MN, Zhang Y, Kiaris H, Belisle JT, Mortazavi A, Barbour AG. (2021). An Infection-Tolerant Mammalian Reservoir for Several Zoonotic Agents Broadly Counters the Inflammatory Effects of Endotoxin. mBio.;12(2):e00588-21. Retrieved from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33849979/ Olival, K., Hosseini, P., Zambrana-Torrelio, C. et al. (2017). Host and viral traits predict zoonotic spillover from mammals. Nature 546, 646–650. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1038/nature22975 Martin, L. B., 2nd, Weil, Z. M., & Nelson, R. J. (2007). Immune defense and reproductive pace of life in Peromyscus mice. Ecology, 88(10), 2516–2528. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1890/07-0060.1 Johnson Christine K., Hitchens Peta L., Pandit Pranav S., Rushmore Julie, Evans Tierra Smiley, Young Cristin C. W. and Doyle Megan M. (2020). Global shifts in mammalian population trends reveal key predictors of virus spillover risk. Proc. R. Soc. B .2872019273620192736. Retrieved from: https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2019.2736 Allen, T., Murray, K.A., Zambrana-Torrelio, C. et al. (2017). Global hotspots and correlates of emerging zoonotic diseases. Nat Commun 8, 1124. Retrieved from: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-017-00923-8 Han, Barbara. (2022). Personal communication. Disease Ecologist, Cary Institute of Ecosystem Studies. http://www.hanlab.science/

Signup for your FREE trial to Wondrium here: http://ow.ly/AOkb30sfmak Who needs redundancy? Well, everyone, it turns out. LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: - Ecological redundancy (also: functional redundancy or functional equivalence): the ecological phenomena that multiple species representing a variety of taxonomic groups can share similar roles in ecosystem functionality - Legume: a plant in the Fabaceae family - Nitrogen fixation: the chemical process by which atmospheric nitrogen is assimilated into organic compounds SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* Kate Yoshida | Script Writer, Narrator and Director Lizah van der Aart | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation Aldo de Vos | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Lizah van der Aart • Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia i Rius David Goldenberg • Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich Henry Reich • Peter Reich • Ever Salazar Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** Cardinale BJ, et al. (2011). The functional role of producer diversity in ecosystems. Am. J. Bot., 98 (2011), pp. 572-592. https://bsapubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.3732/ajb.1000364 Clarke DM & Hollister I. (2010) Introduction to Redundancy. Safety and Reliability 30:4, 4-15. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09617353.2010.11690919 Huda AN, Salmah MRC, Hassan AA, Hamdan A, Razak MNA. 2015. Pollination services of mango flower pollinators. Journal of Insect Science 15: 113. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4672212/ Naeem, S. (1998) Species Redundancy and Ecosystem Reliability. Conservation Biology, 12, 39-45. https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1523-1739.1998.96379.x Paine, RT (1966). Food web complexity and species diversity. American Naturalist 100: 65– 75. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2459379

Order your copy of ""How To Prevent The Next Pandemic"" here: https://www.amazon.com/Prevent-Next-Pandemic-Bill-Gates/dp/0593534484 In 2020, many cities started monitoring wastewater for viruses, and there are a lot of non-virus reasons to keep doing it. LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: - Microbiome - the microorganisms in a particular environment (including the body or a part of the body). - Wastewater - water that has been used in the home, in a business, or as part of an industrial process. - Viral shedding - releasing a virus into the environment through sneezing, coughing, or feces. SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* Cameron Duke | Script Writer, Narrator and Director Arcadi Garcia Rius | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation Aldo de Vos | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Lizah van der Aart • Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia i Rius David Goldenberg • Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich Henry Reich • Peter Reich • Ever Salazar Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** Anis, E., et al. “Insidious Reintroduction of Wild Poliovirus into Israel, 2013.” Euro Surveillance: Bulletin Europeen Sur Les Maladies Transmissibles = European Communicable Disease Bulletin, vol. 18, no. 38, 19 Sept. 2013, p. 20586, pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24084337/, 10.2807/1560-7917.es2013.18.38.20586. CDC. “National Wastewater Surveillance System.” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 21 July 2021, www.cdc.gov/healthywater/surveillance/wastewater-surveillance/wastewater-surveillance.html. Graber, Cynthia. “Why an MIT Robot Is Collecting Poop from Our Sewers - the Boston Globe.” BostonGlobe.com, www.bostonglobe.com/magazine/2017/01/19/why-mit-has-robot-collecting-samples-sewer/g1EhuRPbVR2VtwwJuo2DTN/story.html. Hellmér, Maria, et al. “Detection of Pathogenic Viruses in Sewage Provided Early Warnings of Hepatitis a Virus and Norovirus Outbreaks.” Applied and Environmental Microbiology, vol. 80, no. 21, 1 Nov. 2014, pp. 6771–6781, aem.asm.org/content/80/21/6771.short, 10.1128/AEM.01981-14. Hovi, T., et al. “Poliovirus Surveillance by Examining Sewage Specimens. Quantitative Recovery of Virus after Introduction into Sewerage at Remote Upstream Location.” Epidemiology & Infection, vol. 127, no. 1, 1 Aug. 2001, pp. 101–106, www.cambridge.org/core/journals/epidemiology-and-infection/article/poliovirus-surveillance-by-examining-sewage-specimens-quantitative-recovery-of-virus-after-introduction-into-sewerage-at-remote-upstream-location/EB531F077E4C87FD7284B143352EEEAD, 10.1017/S0950268801005787. Accessed 5 May 2022. Julian, Tim. (2022). Personal communication. Group Leader of Pathogens and Human Health, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology. https://www.eawag.ch/en/aboutus/portrait/organisation/staff/profile/tim-julian/show/ Metcalf, T. G., et al. “Environmental Virology: From Detection of Virus in Sewage and Water by Isolation to Identification by Molecular Biology--a Trip of over 50 Years.” Annual Review of Microbiology, vol. 49, 1995, pp. 461–487, pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8561468/, 10.1146/annurev.mi.49.100195.002333. Raphael, Therese. “Where Will We Find the next Covid Outbreak? Check the Sewers.” Bloomberg.com, 8 Jan. 2022, www.bloomberg.com/opinion/articles/2022-01-08/covid-omicron-sewers-are-our-early-warning-system-for-future-virus-outbreaks. Wells, Chad R., et al. “Prosocial Polio Vaccination in Israel.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 117, no. 23, 26 May 2020, pp. 13138–13144, 10.1073/pnas.1922746117.

Watch the new season of MinuteBody - and get access to both CuriosityStream and Nebula - at https://curiositystream.com/minuteearth Most of Earth’s land is currently in the northern hemisphere because we happen to exist in a time where uneven heating in the mantle has pushed many continental plates northward. LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: - Continental drift: An early theory of land movement that posited that the continents floated on the ocean bed. - Tetrahedral hypothesis: An early theory that attempted to explain the arrangement of Earth’s continents and oceans based on the geometry of a tetrahedron. - Plate tectonics: The generally accepted theory that the Earth’s surface is made up of a series of tectonic plates that slowly move around on top of the mantle. - Pangea: The most recent supercontinent to form on Earth, during the late Paleozoic era. - Great Rift Valley: A series of contiguous geographic trenches between two tectonic plates where humans first evolved. - Aurica: A potential future supercontinent predicted to form in about 200 million years. SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* David Goldenberg | Script Writer, Narrator and Director Lizah van der Aart | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation Aldo de Vos | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Lizah van der Aart • Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia i Rius David Goldenberg • Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich Henry Reich • Peter Reich • Ever Salazar Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** Yoshida, M., Hamano, Y. (2015). Pangea breakup and northward drift of the Indian subcontinent reproduced by a numerical model of mantle convection. Scientific Reports 5, 8407. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1038/srep08407 Morton, M.C. (2017). When and how did plate tectonics begin on Earth? Earth Magazine. Retrieved from: https://www.earthmagazine.org/article/when-and-how-did-plate-tectonics-begin-earth/ Fisher, R. (2022). How the next supercontinent will form. BBC Future. Retrieved from: https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20220401-how-the-next-supercontinent-will-form Maslin, M. (2013). How Climate Change and Plate Tectonics Shaped Human Evolution. Retrieved from: https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-climate-change-and-plate-tectonics-shaped-human-evolution/ Green, W.L. (1875). Vestiges of the Molten Globe. Retrieved from: https://archive.org/details/vestigesmolteng00greegoog

This video was made in partnership with Bill Gates. COVID isn’t the only virus to cause long-lasting symptoms. Other viruses - including the flu - can have similar enduring effects on our tissues and immune systems. LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: - Sequelae: Chronic complications of an acute condition. - RSV: Respiratory Syncytial Virus infects a majority of children before the age of two. - SARS: Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome is a coronavirus-caused respiratory disease responsible for an outbreak in 2002-2003. - Cytokine Storm: A sudden increase in pro-inflammatory cytokines that causes a severe immune reaction. - Fibrosis: Pathological wound healing that leads to the formation of scar tissue. SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* David Goldenberg | Script Writer, Narrator and Director Arcadi Garcia Rius | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation Aldo de Vos | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Lizah van der Aart • Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia i Rius David Goldenberg • Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich Henry Reich • Peter Reich • Ever Salazar Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** Sigal, M. (2021) What is causing the ‘long-hauler’ phenomenon after COVID-19? Cleveland Clinic Journal of Medicine. 88 (5): 273-288. Retrieved from: https://www.ccjm.org/content/88/5/273 Wu, P., & Hartert, T. V. (2011). Evidence for a causal relationship between respiratory syncytial virus infection and asthma. Expert review of anti-infective therapy, 9(9), 731–745. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1586/eri.11.92 Gao, B., Xiang, X. (2019) Interleukin-22 from bench to bedside: a promising drug for epithelial repair. Cell Mol Immunol 16, 666–667. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41423-018-0055-6 Haseltine, W. (2022). New Clues To Long Covid: Prolonged Inflammatory Response. Forbes. Retrieved from: https://www.forbes.com/sites/williamhaseltine/2022/01/25/new-clues-to-long-covid-prolonged-inflammatory-response/?sh=7902b7d8765c Marshall, M. (2020). The lasting misery of coronavirus long-haulers. Nature. 585, 339-341. Retrieved from: https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-020-02598-6 Cipolla EM, Huckestein BR, Alcorn JF. (2020) Influenza sequelae: from immune modulation to persistent alveolitis. Clin Sci (Lond). 2020 Jul 17;134(13):1697-1714. Retrieved from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32648583/ Alcorn, John. (2022) Personal Communication. University of Pittsburgh, Department of Immunology. https://www.immunology.pitt.edu/person/john-f-alcorn-phd

This summer, we partnered with Nate Senner of the University of Massachusetts Amherst and Tebughna School in Beluga, Alaska to make this series of videos all about how, why, and where birds migrate. We had so much fun making these videos that we decided to make them available for free to anyone and everyone who is curious about the secrets birds hold. Enjoy! LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: - Adaptation: a change or the process of change by which an organism or species becomes better suited to its environment. - Bird Banding: the practice of catching birds, marking them with an identifying band around the leg, and then releasing them. - Light Level Geolocator: a lightweight, electronic archival tracking device, usually used in bird migration research to map migration routes, identify important staging areas, and sometimes provide additional ecological information. - Migration: seasonal movement of animals from one region to another. - Physiology: the branch of biology that deals with the normal functions of living organisms and their parts. SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* Cameron Duke | Script Writing, Narration, and Directing David Goldenberg | Script Writing and Directing Lizah van der Aart | Illustration and Animation Ever Salazar | Video Editing Aldo de Vos | Music Nathaniel Schroeder | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Lizah van der Aart • Sarah Berman • Cameron Duke Arcadi Garcia i Rius • David Goldenberg • Melissa Hayes Alex Reich • Henry Reich • Peter Reich Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Website | https://minuteearth.com REFERENCES ************** Both, Christiaan, and Marcel E. Visser. “Adjustment to Climate Change Is Constrained by Arrival Date in a Long-Distance Migrant Bird.” Nature, vol. 411, no. 6835, May 2001, pp. 296–298, 10.1038/35077063 Chernetsov, Nikita, et al. “Migratory Orientation of First-Year White Storks (Ciconia Ciconia): Inherited Information and Social Interactions.” Journal of Experimental Biology, vol. 207, no. 6, 22 Feb. 2004, pp. 937–943, 10.1242/jeb.00853 Farnsworth, Andrew, et al. “A Comparison of Nocturnal Call Counts of Migrating Birds and Reflectivity Measurements on Doppler Radar.” Journal of Avian Biology, vol. 35, no. 4, July 2004, pp. 365–369, 10.1111/j.0908-8857.2004.03180.x. Gilchrist, Grant, et al. “Can Local Ecological Knowledge Contribute to Wildlife Management? Case Studies of Migratory Birds.” Ecology and Society, vol. 10, no. 1, 2005, www.jstor.org/stable/26267752. Gill, Frank B. Ornithology. New York, W.H. Freeman, 1995. Gill, Robert E., et al. “Crossing the Ultimate Ecological Barrier: Evidence for an 11000-Km-Long Nonstop Flight from Alaska to New Zealand and Eastern Australia by Bar-Tailed Godwits.” Condor, vol. 107, no. 1, 1 Feb. 2005, pp. 1–20, https://doi.org/10.1650/7613 Greenwood, Jeremy J. D. “Citizens, Science and Bird Conservation.” Journal of Ornithology, vol. 148, no. S1, 10 Nov. 2007, pp. 77–124, 10.1007/s10336-007-0239-9 “Lift from Flow Turning.” Nasa.gov, 2018, www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/k-12/airplane/right2.html Orellana-Macías, José M., et al. “Shifts in Crane Migration Phenology Associated with Climate Change in Southwestern Europe.” Avian Conservation and Ecology, vol. 15, no. 1, 2020, 10.5751/ace-01565-150116 “Satellite Telemetry and Its Impact on the Study of Animal Migration | Learn Science at Scitable” www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/satellite-telemetry-and-its-impact-on-the-94842487 Strikwerda, T. E., et al. “Bird-Borne Satellite Transmitter and Location Program.” Johns Hopkins APL Technical Digest, vol. 7, no. 2, 1986, pp. 203–208, pubs.er.usgs.gov/publication/5221497 “The Bar-Tailed Godwit’s Annual Migration Is Utterly Astounding.” Audubon, 1 Sept. 2017, www.audubon.org/news/the-bar-tailed-godwits-annual-migration-utterly-astounding “The Basics of Bird Migration: How, Why, and Where.” All about Birds, 1 Aug. 2021, www.allaboutbirds.org/news/the-basics-how-why-and-where-of-bird-migration/ “Theories about Migration | Understanding Migration.” The RSPB, www.rspb.org.uk/birds-and-wildlife/natures-home-magazine/birds-and-wildlife-articles/migration/understanding-migration/ “To the Ends of the Earth | National Geographic Society.” education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/ends-earth Urry, Lisa A, et al. Campbell Biology. 11th ed., New York, Ny, Pearson Education, Inc, 2017.

Sign up for your FREE trial to Wondrium here: http://ow.ly/aZqY30spaZ6 Volcanoes might seem like an unstoppable force of nature - but there is at least one OTHER force on Earth that seems to be able to keep them down. LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: - Decompression Melting: Mantle melting that involves the upward movement of Earth s mostly-solid mantle. - Flux Melting: Melting that occurs when water and other volatile components are introduced to hot solid rock. - Glaciation: the process, condition, or result of being covered by glaciers or ice sheets. - Magma: Hot fluid or semifluid material below or within the earth s crust from which lava and other igneous rock is formed on cooling. SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* Cameron Duke | Script Writer, Narrator and Director Sarah Berman and Lizah van der Aart | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation Nathaniel Schroeder | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Lizah van der Aart • Sarah Berman • Cameron Duke Arcadi Garcia i Rius • David Goldenberg • Melissa Hayes Alex Reich • Henry Reich • Peter Reich Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** Aubry, Thomas J., et al. “Impact of Climate Change on Volcanic Processes: Current Understanding and Future Challenges.” Bulletin of Volcanology, vol. 84, no. 6, 18 May 2022, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00445-022-01562-8 Cooper, Claire L., et al. “Evaluating the Relationship between Climate Change and Volcanism.” Earth-Science Reviews, vol. 177, 1 Feb. 2018, pp. 238–247, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2017.11.009 Huybers, Peter, and Charles Langmuir. “Feedback between Deglaciation, Volcanism, and Atmospheric CO2.” Earth and Planetary Science Letters, vol. 286, no. 3-4, Sept. 2009, pp. 479–491, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2009.07.014 Huybers, Peter, and Charles H. Langmuir. “Delayed CO2 Emissions from Mid-Ocean Ridge Volcanism as a Possible Cause of Late-Pleistocene Glacial Cycles.” Earth and Planetary Science Letters, vol. 457, Jan. 2017, pp. 238–249, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2016.09.021 Jull, M., and D. McKenzie. “The Effect of Deglaciation on Mantle Melting beneath Iceland.” Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth, vol. 101, no. B10, 10 Oct. 1996, pp. 21815–21828, https://doi.org/10.1029/96jb01308 Maclennan, J., et al. “The Link between Volcanism and Deglaciation in Iceland.” Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems, vol. 3, no. 11, Nov. 2002, pp. 1–25, https://doi.org/10.1029/2001gc000282 Praetorius, Summer, et al. “Interaction between Climate, Volcanism, and Isostatic Rebound in Southeast Alaska during the Last Deglaciation.” Earth and Planetary Science Letters, vol. 452, 15 Oct. 2016, pp. 79–89, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2016.07.033 Rawson, Harriet, et al. “The Magmatic and Eruptive Response of Arc Volcanoes to Deglaciation: Insights from Southern Chile.” Geology, vol. 44, no. 4, 24 Feb. 2016, pp. 251–254, https://doi.org/10.1130/g37504.1 Swindles, Graeme T., et al. “Climatic Control on Icelandic Volcanic Activity during the Mid-Holocene.” Geology, vol. 46, no. 1, 1 Jan. 2018, pp. 47–50, https://doi.org/10.1130/G39633.1 Watt, Sebastian F.L., et al. “The Volcanic Response to Deglaciation: Evidence from Glaciated Arcs and a Reassessment of Global Eruption Records.” Earth-Science Reviews, vol. 122, July 2013, pp. 77–102, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2013.03.007

Learn to use your career to make a difference at https://www.80000hours.org/minuteearth We often use decibels, a measure of sound pressure, to describe how loud something is - but loudness is caused by how we perceive sounds, and the two often don t line up. LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: - Decibels (dB): a unit used to measure changes in pressure or power. - Loudness: the intensity with which a sound is perceived. - Weighted decibels (dBA): decibels that try to take into account our sensitivity for different frequencies to better approximate loudness. - Frequency: the rate at which something occurs. In the context of sound it usually means sound waves per second . - Audible: perceptible for the human ear. - High sound: a sound that has a high (fast) frequency - Low sound: a sound that has a low (slow) frequency - Resonance: When multiple things have a similar frequency they will tend to move together and amplify each other. - Echolocation: Using sound to "see". Bats use this to hunt in the dark. - Equal loudness contours: Curves that show the sensitivity of the human ear along the frequency spectrum. SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* Aldo de Vos | Script Writing, Illustration, Animation, and Music Kate Yoshida | Script Editor Cameron Duke | Director and Narrator MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Lizah van der Aart • Sarah Berman • Cameron Duke Arcadi Garcia i Rius • David Goldenberg • Melissa Hayes Alex Reich • Henry Reich • Peter Reich Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** Hawkins, Joseph E. “Human Ear | Structure, Function, & Parts.” Encyclopædia Britannica, 25 Oct. 2018, www.britannica.com/science/ear.Suzuki, Yôiti, and Hisashi Takeshima. “Equal-Loudness-Level Contours for Pure Tones.” The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, vol. 116, no. 2, Aug. 2004, pp. 918–933, 10.1121/1.1763601. Tosi, Patrizia, et al. “Earthquake Sound Perception.” Geophysical Research Letters, vol. 39, no. 24, 19 Dec. 2012, 10.1029/2012gl054382.

Thanks to the ASCEND project for partnering with us on this video! How do you count things you don t know about? LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with this keyword: - Species accumulation curve: a graph recording the cumulative number of species recorded as a function of the cumulative effort expended searching for them. SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* Kate Yoshida | Script Writer, Narrator and Director Lizah van der Aart | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation Aldo de Vos | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Lizah van der Aart • Sarah Berman • Cameron Duke Arcadi Garcia i Rius • David Goldenberg • Melissa Hayes Alex Reich • Henry Reich • Peter Reich Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida OUR LINKS ************ Merch | http://dftba.com/minuteearth MinuteEarth Explains Book | https://minuteearth.com/books Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** Beech E, Rivers M, Oldfield S, Smith PP (2017) Global Tree Search: The first complete global database of tree species and country distributions. J. Sustain. For. 36, 454–489. https://doi.org/10.1080/10549811.2017.1310049 Cazzolla Gatti, R, et al. (2022) The number of tree species on Earth. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 119 (6): e2115329119. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2115329119 Chao, A. and Chiu, C. H. (2016). Species richness: estimation and comparison. Wiley StatsRef: Statistics Reference Online. 1-26. http://chao.stat.nthu.edu.tw/wordpress/paper/119.pdf Chiu CH, Chao A (2016) Estimating and comparing microbial diversity in the presence of sequencing errors. PeerJ 4, e1634. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.1634 ter Steege, H., et al. (2013) Hyperdominance in the Amazonian tree flora. Science 342, 1243092 https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1243092

This video was made in partnership with Gates Ventures. Energy use can be confusing – I mean, how do you compare gasoline in your car to electricity piped to your house? That s why we made these things spud-tacularly simple. LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: - Calorie: the energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water through 1°C (now usually defined as 4.1868 joules). - Energy: power derived from the utilization of physical or chemical resources, especially to provide light and heat or to work machines. - Joule: the SI unit of work or energy, equal to the work done by a force of one newton when its point of application moves one meter in the direction of action of the force, equivalent to one 3600th of a watt-hour. - Watt: the SI unit of power, equivalent to one joule per second, corresponding to the power in an electric circuit in which the potential difference is one volt and the current one ampere. - Watt-hour: a measure of electrical energy equivalent to a power consumption of one watt for one hour. SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* Cameron Duke | Script Writer, Narrator and Director Lizah Van der Aart | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation Nathaniel Schroeder | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Lizah van der Aart • Sarah Berman • Cameron Duke Arcadi Garcia i Rius • David Goldenberg • Melissa Hayes Alex Reich • Henry Reich • Peter Reich Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida OUR LINKS ************ Merch | http://dftba.com/minuteearth MinuteEarth Explains Book | https://minuteearth.com/books Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** “All-Electric Vehicles” (2017) https://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/evtech.shtml “Apple’s Electricity Use 2020.” Statista, https://www.statista.com/statistics/531938/electricity-consumed-by-apple-inc-globally “Statistical Review of World Energy.” BP Global, 2021, https://www.bp.com/en/global/corporate/energy-economics/statistical-review-of-world-energy.html “Cameco U101 - Fuel Manufacturing.” https://www.cameco.com/uranium_101/fuel-processing/fuel-manufacturing/ “FoodData Central.” Usda.gov, 2019, https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/170026/nutrients “This Is What It Costs to Light 7 of the Brightest Landmarks in the World for a Year.” Business Insider, https://www.businessinsider.com/the-cost-of-lighting-landmarks-around-the-world-2017-7 Ritchie, Hannah, et al. “Energy Production and Consumption.” Our World in Data, 2020, https://ourworldindata.org/energy-production-consumption "The shipping industry looks for green fuels." Acs.org, 2022, https://cen.acs.org/environment/greenhouse-gases/shipping-industry-looks-green-fuels/100/i8

Download the Tab For A Cause browser extension at https://tabforacause.org/minuteearth2 When it comes to the mating game, fish have some of the strangest ways of thwarting the competition. LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: - Alternative mating strategy: a strategy used by male or female animals, often with distinct phenotypes, that differs from the prevailing mating strategy. - Dependent selection: an evolutionary process by which the fitness of a phenotype or genotype depends on the phenotype or genotype composition of a given population. SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Our merch: http://dftba.com/minuteearth - Our book: https://minuteearth.com/books - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* Cameron Duke | Script Writer, Narrator and Director Arcadi Garcia i Ruis | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation Nathaniel Schroeder | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Lizah van der Aart • Sarah Berman • Cameron Duke Arcadi Garcia i Rius • David Goldenberg • Melissa Hayes Alex Reich • Henry Reich • Peter Reich Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** Dominey, Wallace J. “Female Mimicry in Male Bluegill Sunfish—a Genetic Polymorphism?” Nature, vol. 284, no. 5756, Apr. 1980, pp. 546–548, https://doi.org/10.1038/284546a0 “Evolution of Alternative Reproductive Strategies: Frequency-Dependent Sexual Selection in Male Bluegill Sunfish | Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences, 2022, royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.1991.0033 Gross, Mart R. “Alternative Reproductive Strategies and Tactics: Diversity within Sexes.” Trends in Ecology & Evolution, vol. 11, no. 2, Feb. 1996, pp. 92–98, https://doi.org/10.1016/0169-5347(96)81050-0 Gross, Mart R. “Sneakers, Satellites and Parentals: Polymorphic Mating Strategies in North American Sunfishes.” Zeitschrift Für Tierpsychologie, vol. 60, no. 1, 12 Jan. 1982, pp. 1–26, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0310.1982.tb01073.x Jukema, Joop, and Theunis Piersma. “Permanent Female Mimics in a Lekking Shorebird.” Biology Letters, vol. 2, no. 2, 10 Jan. 2006, pp. 161–164, https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2005.0416 Neff, B. D. “Genetic Paternity Analysis and Breeding Success in Bluegill Sunfish (Lepomis Macrochirus).” Journal of Heredity, vol. 92, no. 2, 1 Mar. 2001, pp. 111–119, https://doi.org/10.1093/jhered/92.2.111 Neff, B. D. “Sperm Investment and Alternative Mating Tactics in Bluegill Sunfish (Lepomis Macrochirus).” Behavioral Ecology, vol. 14, no. 5, 1 Sept. 2003, pp. 634–641, https://doi.org/10.1093/beheco/arg032 Neff, Bryan D., and Erik I. Svensson. “Polyandry and Alternative Mating Tactics.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, vol. 368, no. 1613, 5 Mar. 2013, p. 20120045, https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2012.0045 Neff, Bryan. Personal Communication