Thanks to CTBTO for sponsoring this video: https://www.ctbto.org Many of the bewildering correlations in our world - like that between Beryllium-7 and the Asian monsoon - are a result of huge and unseen forces that tie them together. Thanks also to our Patreon patrons https://www.patreon.com/MinuteEarth and our YouTube members. ___________________________________________ To learn more, start your googling with these keywords: Monsoon: A seasonal increase in precipitation driven by atmospheric conditions. Hadley Cell: A global scale atmospheric cell driven by air rising near the equator and falling as it flows towards the polls. Ferrel Cell: A secondary atmospheric circulation that collides with the Hadley cell and pushes air back down towards the Earth’s surface. Intertropical Convergence Zone: The narrow zone between the northern and southern Hadley cells where warm air comes together and rises. Tropopause: The boundary area roughly 15 kilometers above the Earth’s surface between the troposphere and the stratosphere. Radionuclide: Isotopes of atoms that release radiation as they break down. Beryllium-7: A relatively stable radionuclide of the element Beryllium that naturally forms in the tropopause during spallation. Spallation: The process in which a heavier atom loses nuclear particles after being bombarded by cosmic rays. Cosmic Rays: High energy atomic particles that move at near light speed through space. ___________________________________________ Subscribe to MinuteEarth on YouTube: http://goo.gl/EpIDGd Support us on Patreon: https://goo.gl/ZVgLQZ And visit our website: https://www.minuteearth.com/ Say hello on Facebook: http://goo.gl/FpAvo6 And Twitter: http://goo.gl/Y1aWVC And download our videos on itunes: https://goo.gl/sfwS6n ___________________________________________ Credits (and Twitter handles): Video Writer, Director, and Narrator: David Goldenberg (@dgoldenberg) Video Illustrator: Sarah Berman (@sarahjberman) With Contributions From: Henry Reich, Alex Reich, Kate Yoshida, Ever Salazar, Peter Reich, Julián Gómez, Arcadi Garcia Rius Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder ___________________________________________ References: Terzi, L., Kalinowski, M., Schoeppner, M., and Wotawa, G. (2019). How to predict seasonal weather and monsoons with radionuclide monitoring. Nature. 9: 2729. Retrieved from: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-019-39664-7. Köhn‐Reich, L., Bürger, G. (2019). Dynamical prediction of Indian monsoon: Past and present skill. International Journal of Climatology. 38:3574-3581. Retrieved from: https://rmets.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/joc.6039. Delaygue, G., Bekki, S., and Bard, E. (2015) Modelling the stratospheric budget of beryllium isotopes. Tellus B: Chemical and Physical Meteorology, 67:1 Retrieved from: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.3402/tellusb.v67.28582. Palukkat, H. (2016) The odds of foretelling rains: Why monsoon prediction is hard, and why it could soon improve. Economic Times. Retrieved from: https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/the-odds-of-foretelling-rains-why-monsoon-prediction-is-hard-and-why-it-could-soon-improve/articleshow/52876823.cms. Kalinowski, M. (2020). Personal Communication. Provisional Technical Secretariat, Preparatory Commission for the Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization.

This video was made in partnership with Bill Gates. To learn more about his work on clean energy, visit https://gatesnot.es/3dSVdur We’ll each have at least $100,000 more in our piggy banks, on average, if we stop climate change than if we don’t. Thanks also to our Patreon patrons https://www.patreon.com/MinuteEarth and our YouTube members. ___________________________________________ To learn more, start your googling with these keywords: climate change damages, greenhouse gas emissions, climate mitigation ___________________________________________ Subscribe to MinuteEarth on YouTube: http://goo.gl/EpIDGd Support us on Patreon: https://goo.gl/ZVgLQZ And visit our website: https://www.minuteearth.com/ Say hello on Facebook: http://goo.gl/FpAvo6 And Twitter: http://goo.gl/Y1aWVC And download our videos on itunes: https://goo.gl/sfwS6n ___________________________________________ Credits (and Twitter handles): Script Writer: Peter Reich Script Editor and Video Narrator: Alex Reich (@alexhreich) Video Illustrator: Sarah Berman (@sarahjberman) Video Director: Julián Gustavo Gómez (@thejuliangomez) With Contributions From: Henry Reich, Kate Yoshida, Ever Salazar, David Goldenberg, Arcadi Garcia Rius Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder ___________________________________________ References: Burke M, WM Davis, NS Diffenaugh. 2018. Large potential reduction in economic damages under UN mitigation targets Nature 557: 549-553. Hsiang S, R Kopp, A Jina, J Rising, M Delgado, S Mohan, DJ Rasmussen, R Muir-Wood, P Wilson, M Oppenheimer, K Larsen, T Houser. 2017. Estimating economic damage from climate change in the United States. Science 356, 1362-1369 International Monetary Fund. 2017. The Effects of Weather Shocks on Economic Activity: How Can Low-income Countries Cope? World Economic Outlook Chapter 3, 117-183. Kahn, ME, K Mohaddes, RNC Ng, M Hashem Pesaran, M Raissi, J-C Yang. 2019. Long-Term Macroeconomic Effects of Climate Change: A Cross-Country Analysis, CESifo Working Paper, No. 7738, Center for Economic Studies and Ifo Institute (CESifo), Munich. Some economists argue that people in the future will be so much richer than people today that we should just let them pay to fix climate change. There’s no guarantee, however, that future people will be richer (especially if we let climate change happen), and other economists argue that even if future people are richer, it’s not ok to leave them with a ruined planet. So, we’ve emphasized why it would be beneficial to slow climate change now.

Thanks to Keeps for sponsoring this video. Go to https://keeps.com/minuteearth to learn more and to get 50% off your first order of hair loss treatment! In this collection of classic MinuteEarth videos, we take a look at some of the most extreme weather on Earth and its consequences. 0:00 - Intro 0:11 - The Hottest Place on Earth | https://youtu.be/gKYrXHZwtPw 2:23 - How To Avoid The Next Atlantis | https://youtu.be/GeDIPrOSWbU 4:45 - Are "Acts of God" Disappearing? | https://youtu.be/uiiPDio-dzo 7:36 - This Is Your Brain On Extreme Weather | https://youtu.be/cJCczZd7HVk 10:03 - Outro

Thanks to OIST for sponsoring this video. To learn more, visit https://admissions.oist.jp/ The lab-on-a-stick that lets us know if we’re pregnant is a genius bit of technology that can be used to quickly determine everything from whether there are nuts in our chocolate to whether we have COVID. LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: Early Pregnancy Test: A simple lateral flow assay that tests for the presence of a particular hormone in urine. Lateral Flow Assay: Simple tests in which a liquid sample is run along the surface of a pad using capillary action and colored antibodies to show a visual positive or negative result. Capillary Action: The movement of water-based liquids within small tubes due to the forces of cohesion, adhesion, and surface tension. Antibody: A blood protein produced by the immune system in response to a particular antigen. Antigen: A foreign substance which produces an immune response within the body. False positive: A result produced that falsely indicates a particular antigen is present. False negative: A result produced that falsely indicates that a particular antigen is absent. SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* David Goldenberg | Script Writer, Narrator and Director Arcadi Garcia Rius | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation Nathaniel Schroeder | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia Rius David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich Peter Reich • Ever Salazar • Kate Yoshida OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** Koczula, K., and Gallotta, A. (2016) Lateral Flow Assays. Essays in Biochemistry, 60: 111-120. Retrieved from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4986465/. Seo, K., Holt, P., Stone, H. and Gast, R. (2003). Simple and rapid methods for detecting Salmonella enteritidis in raw eggs. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 87: 139-144. Retrieved from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12927716/. Bishop, J., Hsieh, H., Gasperino, D., and Weigl, B. (2019). (1997). Sensitivity enhancement in lateral flow assays: a systems perspective. Lab On A Chip, 19: 2486-2499. Retrieved from: https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2019/lc/c9lc00104b#!divAbstract. O’Farrell, B. (2008). Evolution in Lateral Flow–Based Immunoassay Systems. Nature Public Health Emergency Collection. Retrieved from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7119943/ Collins, F. (2020). Charting a Rapid Course Toward Better COVID-19 Tests and Treatments. NIH Director’s Blog. Retrieved from: https://directorsblog.nih.gov/2020/08/06/charting-a-rapid-course-toward-better-covid-19-tests-and-treatments/ Shen, A. Personal Communication (2020). Director, Micro/Bio/Nanofluidics Unit at Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology. https://groups.oist.jp/mbnu

Use the promo code "minuteearth" at https://curiositystream.com/minuteearth for 26% off an annual subscription to CuriosityStream, plus access to Nebula! We ve all experienced thunder, but what ARE all those claps, booms, and rumbles? LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: Shock wave: a sharp change of pressure in a narrow region traveling through a medium, especially air, caused by explosion or by a body moving faster than sound SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* Kate Yoshida | Script Writer, Narrator and Director Sarah Berman | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia Rius David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich Peter Reich • Ever Salazar • Kate Yoshida OTHER CREDITS ***************** “thunder3.ogg” by Josh74000MC of freesound.org https://freesound.org/people/Josh74000MC/sounds/475094/ “Drythunder1.wav” by juskiddink of freesound.org https://freesound.org/people/juskiddink/sounds/101933/ “Thunder-rain-middle-distance.wav” by ragamuffin of freesound.org https://freesound.org/people/ragamuffin/sounds/197738/ “Thunder.rumble.ogg” by xUMR of freesound.org https://freesound.org/people/xUMR/sounds/486557/ “Rain, moderate, b.wav” by InspectorJ of freesound.org https://freesound.org/people/InspectorJ/sounds/401276/ “Electric-gas-stove-ignite.wav” by squidocto of freesound.org https://freesound.org/people/Squidocto/sounds/262582/ “Breaking the sound barrier” by thenudo of freesound.org https://freesound.org/people/thenudo/sounds/134829/ “Whip crack b.wav” by cetsoundcrew of freesound.org https://freesound.org/people/cetsoundcrew/sounds/397662/ “Party Pack, Balloons, Popping, 02-01.wav" by InspectorJ of freesound.org https://freesound.org/people/InspectorJ/sounds/484268/ OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** Blanco, F., La Rocca, P., Petta, C. and Riggi, F. (2009) Modelling Digital Thunder. European Journal of Physics 30: 139–45. https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0143-0807/30/1/014 Depasse, P. (1994) Lightning acoustic signature. Journal of Geophysics Research 99: 25933–25940. https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/94JD01986 Jagadeesh, G. (2008) Fascinating world of shock waves. Resonance 13: 752–767. https://www.ias.ac.in/public/Volumes/reso/013/08/0752-0767.pdf Matson, W.R. (2018) Sonic Thunder: a Discussion of Natural and Artificial Shock Waves. Morgan and Claypool Publishers. Sidath, A., Bodhika, J.A.P., Mahendra, F. (2016). Frequency Analysis of Thunder Features. Proceedings of International Conference on Lightning Protection (ICLP). https://www.researchgate.net/publication/309982045_Frequency_Analysis_of_Thunder_Features

Surprisingly, flattened fauna can teach us a lot about wildlife biology. Join us on Patreon at https://www.patreon.com/minuteearth Watch the behind-the-scenes talkshow with MinuteEarth staff: https://www.patreon.com/posts/watch-october-q-43801553 LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: Roadkill: The remains of animals killed by motor vehicles. Road ecology: The study of how roads impact the surrounding environment and its inhabitants. Invasive species: Non-native animals that outcompete local animals for resources. Fieldwork: The collection of data outside of a laboratory setting. Confounder: A variable (like animal reaction to oncoming cars) that influences the outcome when comparing a dependent variable (like number of animals) to the outcome (number of roadkill carcasses of said animal). SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* David Goldenberg | Script Writer, Narrator and Director Josh Taira | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation Ever Salazar | Audio Editing Nathaniel Schroeder | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia Rius David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich Peter Reich • Ever Salazar • Kate Yoshida OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** Jacobson, S. L., L. L. Bliss-Ketchum, C. E. de Rivera, and W. P. Smith. (2016) A behavior-based framework for assessing barrier effects to wildlife from vehicle traffic volume. Ecosphere, 7(4). Retrieved from: https://www.fs.fed.us/psw/publications/jacobson/psw_2016_jacobson001.pdf. Capula, M., Rugiero, L., Capizzi, D., and Milana, G. (2014). Long-term, climate change-related shifts in monthly patterns of roadkilled Mediterranean snakes (Hierophis viridifavus). Herpetological Journal, 24: 97-102. Retrieved from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/261986760_Long-term_climate_change-related_shifts_in_monthly_patterns_of_roadkilled_Mediterranean_snakes_Hierophis_viridifavus. Yeager, A. (2017). After Disaster Strikes, Often Science Benefits. Washington Post. Retrieved from: https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/after-disaster-strikes-science-often-benefits/2017/09/15/4cd0c522-98a6-11e7-87fc-c3f7ee4035c9_story.html. Thomas, E. and Wilson, E. (2018). Guidance for surveying hedgehogs. Hedgehog Street. Retrieved from: https://www.hedgehogstreet.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/Guidance-for-surveying-hedgehogs.pdf Schwartz, A., Shilling, F., and Perkins, S. (2020). The value of monitoring wildlife roadkill. European Journal of Wildlife Research. 66:18. Retrieved from: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10344-019-1357-4 Shilling, F. Personal Communication (2020). Co-Director, Road Ecology Center at University of California, Davis. https://roadecology.ucdavis.edu/

You can read Bill & Melinda Gates 2021 letter at http://gatesnot.es/3opAPWK Certain cognitive biases cause humans to make unsafe decisions in a pandemic, making a terrible disease even worse. LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: Pandemic: A disease outbreak that spreads across the world. Exponential Growth: Growth that occurs when a value increases in proportion to its current value. Exponential Growth Prediction Bias: An error in prediction that occurs when people underestimate how quickly numbers rise in an exponential system. Optimism Bias: An error that occurs when people underestimate their personal likelihood of experiencing a negative event. Hyperbolic Time Discounting Bias: An error that occurs when people choose smaller rewards in the present over larger awards in the future. Reactance Psychology: An unpleasant motivational state that occurs when a freedom is threatened with elimination. Individualism: The principle of being independent and self-reliant. Collectivism: The principle of giving a group priority over each individual in it. Disinformation: Deliberately false information designed to deceive. SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* David Goldenberg | Script Writer, Narrator and Director Arcadi Garcia Rius | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation Nathaniel Schroeder | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia Rius David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich Peter Reich • Ever Salazar • Kate Yoshida OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** Ritwik Banerjee, Joydeep Bhattacharya, Priyama Majumdar (2021). Exponential-growth prediction bias and compliance with safety measures related to COVID-19. Social Science & Medicine, 268. Retrieved from:https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0277953620306924?via%3Dihub. IHME COVID-19 Forecasting Team., Reiner, R.C., Barber, R.M. et al. (2020). Modeling COVID-19 scenarios for the United States. Nat Med 27, 94–105. Retrieved from: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41591-020-1132-9. Steindl, C., Jonas, E., Sittenthaler, S., Traut-Mattausch, E., & Greenberg, J. (2015). Understanding Psychological Reactance: New Developments and Findings. Zeitschrift fur Psychologie, 223(4), 205–214. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1027/2151-2604/a000222 Joris Lammers, Jan Crusius, and Anne Gast. (2020). Correcting misperceptions of exponential coronavirus growth increases support for social distancing.PNAS. 117:8. Retrieved from: https://www.pnas.org/content/pnas/117/28/16264.full.pdf. Alan, M., Marco, M. (2020). How Your Brain Tricks You Into Taking Risks During the Pandemic. ProPublica. Retrieved from: https://www.propublica.org/article/how-your-brain-tricks-you-into-taking-risks-during-the-pandemic/. Bottemanne Hugo, Morlaàs Orphée, Fossati Philippe, Schmidt Liane. (2020). Does the Coronavirus Epidemic Take Advantage of Human Optimism Bias? Frontiers in Psychology. 11. Retrieved from: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.02001/full Soofi, M., Najafi, F. & Karami-Matin, B. (2020). Using Insights from Behavioral Economics to Mitigate the Spread of COVID-19. Appl Health Econ Health Policy 18, 345–350. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40258-020-00595-4

Offset your carbon footprint with Wren! They ll plant 10 extra trees for each of the first 100 people who sign up at https://www.wren.co/start/minuteearth. Our oceans don’t technically contain salt, but the ions salt is made of play a critical role in planet-wide processes that make the Earth habitable. LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: Salt: chemical compounds made of positively- and negatively-charged particles called “ions” like sodium and chloride Convection current: the movement of fluid, like water, due to a difference in temperature and/or density Hydrothermal vent: a fissure on the seafloor that takes in dense ocean water and discharges water heated by volcanic activity below the seafloor. SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* Julián Gustavo Gómez (@thejuliangomez) | Script Writer, Narrator and Director Arcadi Garcia i Rius (@garirius) | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation Aldo de Vos, Know Art | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia i Rius David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich • Peter Reich Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** Duxbury, A. C. (n.d.). Seawater. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved December 3, 2021, from https://www.britannica.com/science/seawater. Earley, Joseph E. "Why there is no salt in the sea." Foundations of Chemistry 7.1 (2005): 85-102. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/B:FOCH.0000042881.05418.15 Henney, J. E., C. L. Taylor, and C. S. Boon. "Taste and flavor roles of sodium in foods: A unique challenge to reducing sodium intake." Strategies to Reduce Sodium Intake in The United States; National Academies Press: Washington, DC, USA (2010). https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK50958/ Ouillon, Raphael, et al. "Halite precipitation from double‐diffusive salt fingers in the Dead Sea: Numerical simulations." Water Resources Research 55.5 (2019): 4252-4265. https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2019WR024818

Get 50% off your first month of any KiwiCo crate by going to http://www.kiwico.com/minuteearth50 The writers/directors at MinuteEarth got together to share some of their favorite MinuteEarth videos. 0:00 - Kate s Intro 0:54 - Why Poor Places are More Diverse | https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mWVATekt4ZA 4:11 - David s Intro 4:43 - Beer & Biodiversity | https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Atg-5Nqszxw 7:12 - Julián s Intro 7:37 - How We Evolved To Browse The Web | https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IUJqot6fY-U 10:49 - Henry s Intro 11:11 - Why is it Hot Underground? | https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mOSpRzW2i_4 13:39 - Outro SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) OUR STAFF ************ Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia Rius David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich Peter Reich • Ever Salazar • Kate Yoshida MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts | https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176

Check out Terra Mater’s new video about the Skywalker Gibbon - and subscribe - at https://youtube.com/terramaterofficial. Most new species are discovered by amateurs because nowadays non-professionals are actually better suited to the requirements of new species “discovery.” LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: Taxonomy: The branch of science concerned with classifying organisms Taxonomic Impediment: The gaps in our taxonomic knowledge and the shortage of trained taxonomists and curators. Amateur Taxonomist: Someone who classifies organisms but is not paid to do so. Malacology: The study of mollusks, including snails and slugs. Type Specimen: The specimen used to officially describe a new species. SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* David Goldenberg (@dgoldenberg) | Script Writer, Narrator and Director Arcadi Garcia Rius (@garirius) | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation Nathaniel Schroeder | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia Rius David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich Peter Reich • Ever Salazar • Kate Yoshida OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts | https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** Fontaine, B., van Achterberg, K., Alonso-Zarazaga, M. A., Araujo, R., Asche, M., Aspöck, H., Aspöck, U., Audisio, P., Aukema, B., Bailly, N., Balsamo, M., Bank, R. A., Belfiore, C., Bogdanowicz, W., Boxshall, G., Burckhardt, D., Chylarecki, P., Deharveng, L., Dubois, A., Enghoff, H., … Bouchet, P. (2012). New species in the Old World: Europe as a frontier in biodiversity exploration, a test bed for 21st century taxonomy. PloS one, 7(5), e36881. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0036881. Mora C, Tittensor DP, Adl S, Simpson AGB, Worm B. (2011). How Many Species Are There on Earth and in the Ocean? PLOS Biology 9(8): e1001127. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.1001127. Drew, L. (2011). Are We Losing the Science of Taxonomy? As need grows, numbers and training are failing to keep up., BioScience, 61:12 (942–946). Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1525/bio.2011.61.12.4. Pearson, D., Hamilton, A., Erwin, T. (2011). Recovery Plan for the Endangered Taxonomy Profession. BioScience. 61:1 (58–63). Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1525/bio.2011.61.1.11. Agnarsson I, Kuntner M. (2007). Taxonomy in a changing world: seeking solutions for a science in crisis. Syst Biol.56(3):531-9. Retrieved from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17562477/. Warren, R. (2019). The New Publish or Perish: Requirements for Jobs and Tenure. ASA Footnotes. $7:1. Retrieved from: https://www.asanet.org/sites/default/files/attach/footnotes/footnotes_jan-feb-19.pdf Leber, J. (2019). Species Sleuths: Amateur Naturalists Spark a New Wave of Discovery. Yale Environment 360. Retrieved from: https://e360.yale.edu/features/field-sleuths-the-amateur-naturalists-who-are-discovering-new-species Nuwer, R. (2013). A Rallying Cry For Naming All Species On Earth. New York Times. Retrieved from: https://green.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/01/24/a-rallying-cry-for-naming-all-species-on-earth/ Fraussen, Koen. Personal Communication (2020). Bus Driver, Public Transport Company, Flanders, Belgium. https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C5&q=author%3A%22Fraussen+Koen%22&btnG=&oq=frauss Mora, Camilo. Personal Communication (2020). Associate Professor, Department of Geography and Environment, University of Hawaii. http://www.soc.hawaii.edu/mora/index.html

To start using Tab for a Cause, go to: http://tabforacause.org/minuteearth2 Under the right conditions, wildfires can form clouds and generate firestorms, which last far longer than normal thunderstorms. LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: Pyrocumulonimbus cloud - a type of cumulonimbus cloud that forms that forms above wildfires and even volcanic eruptions, which can create thunderstorms Virga - rain that evaporates before it hits the ground Updraft - upward moving air in a thunderstorm Downdraft - downward moving air in a thunderstorm SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* Julián Gustavo Gómez (@TheJulianGomez) | Script Writer, Narrator and Director Sarah Berman (@sarahjberman) | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation Nathaniel Schroeder | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia Rius David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich Peter Reich • Ever Salazar • Kate Yoshida OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** Andreae, Meinrat O., et al. "Smoking rain clouds over the Amazon." science 303.5662 (2004): 1337-1342. https://science.sciencemag.org/content/303/5662/1337.abstract Dowdy, Andrew J., Michael D. Fromm, and Nicholas McCarthy. "Pyrocumulonimbus lightning and fire ignition on Black Saturday in southeast Australia." Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 122.14 (2017): 7342-7354. https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/2017JD026577 Dowdy, Andrew J., et al. "Future changes in extreme weather and pyroconvection risk factors for Australian wildfires." Scientific reports 9.1 (2019): 1-11. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-019-46362-x McKeever, A. (2020, September 24). Fire clouds and fire tornadoes: How wildfires spawn extreme weather. Retrieved January 30, 2021, from https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/natural-disasters/pyrocumulonimbus-clouds-fire-tornadoes-how-wildfires-spawn-extreme-weather/ Ndalila, Mercy N., et al. "Evolution of a pyrocumulonimbus event associated with an extreme wildfire in Tasmania, Australia." Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences 20.5 (2020): 1497-1511. https://nhess.copernicus.org/articles/20/1497/2020/ Peterson, David A., et al. "Wildfire-driven thunderstorms cause a volcano-like stratospheric injection of smoke." NPJ climate and atmospheric science 1.1 (2018): 1-8. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41612-018-0039-3

To start comparing quotes and simplify insurance-buying check out Policygenius: http://policygenius.com/minuteearth. Thanks to Policygenius for sponsoring this video! Ever found a fantastic coronavirus illustration that led him to learn about viral attachment and entry. LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: Virus: a submicroscopic infectious agent that replicates only inside the living cells of an organism. The study of viruses is known as virology. Virion: a complete virus particle, and consists of nucleic acid surrounded by a protective coat of protein called a capsid. Coronaviruses: a group of related RNA viruses that cause diseases in mammals and birds. In humans and birds, they cause respiratory tract infections that can range from mild to lethal and include some cases of the common cold, SARS, MERS, and COVID-19. SARS-CoV-2: the virus that causes coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), the respiratory illness responsible for the COVID-19 pandemic. Class I fusion proteins: resemble influenza virus hemagglutinin in their structure. Post-fusion, the active site has a trimer of α-helical coiled-coils Proteins featured in this video: - SARS-CoV-2 Spike (S) Protein - Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycan (HSPG) (Syndecan-4, especifically) - Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) - Furin - Transmembrane protease, serine 2 (TMPRSS2) If you liked this week’s video, you might also like: Coronaviruses 101: Focus on Molecular Virology by Britt Glaunsinger https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8_bOhZd6ieM Virology Lectures 2021: Attachment and entry by Vincent Racaniello https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7grtc4k1fhg Building a visual consensus model of the SARS-CoV-2 life cycle https://animationlab.utah.edu/cova SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* Ever Salazar | Script Writer, Narrator, Director, and Illustrator Aldo de Vos (Know Art) | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia Rius David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich Peter Reich • Ever Salazar • Kate Yoshida OTHER CREDITS ***************** SARS-CoV-2 Fusion, 2020 - Illustration by David S. Goodsell, RCSB Protein Data Bank; doi: 10.2210/rcsb_pdb/goodsell-gallery-026 http://pdb101.rcsb.org/sci-art/goodsell-gallery/sars-cov-2-fusion Coronavirus outbreak (covid 19) explained through 3D Medical Animation - Video by scientificanimations.com https://youtu.be/I-Yd-_XIWJg?t=208 Coronavirus, Explained: This Pandemic - Video by Netflix https://www.netflix.com/title/81273378 How the Coronavirus Hijacks Your Cells - Video by Bloomberg Quicktake https://youtu.be/4S3DXXtRZZg?t=128 Ink Drop/Drip in water - Video by CyberWebFX https://www.youtube.com/c/CyberWebFX MinuteEarth Tamil: https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCIrFGdwp_FzEkF7uHEjSShw OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** Afzelius, B. (1994). Ultrastructure of human nasal epithelium during an episode of coronavirus infection. Virchows Archiv 424:295-300 Bestle, D., Heindl, M., Limburg, H., et all (2020). TMPRSS2 and furin are both essential for proteolytic activation of SARS-CoV-2 in human airway cells. doi: 10.26508/lsa.202000786 Buijsers B., et al (2020) Increased Plasma Heparanase Activity in COVID-19 Patients. Front. Immunol. 11:575047. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.575047 Casalino, L., et al (2020). Beyond Shielding: The Roles of Glycans in the SARS-CoV-2 Spike Protein ACS Central Science 2020 6 (10), 1722-1734. doi: 10.1021/acscentsci.0c01056 Clausen, T. M., et al (2020). SARS-CoV-2 Infection Depends on Cellular Heparan Sulfate and ACE2. Cell Volume 183, Issue 4, Pages 1043-1057.e15. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2020.09.033 Elenius, K & Jalkanen, M. (1994). Function of the syndecans - a family of cell surface proteoglycans. Journal of Cell Science 107, 2975-2982 Shang, J. et al (2020). Cell entry mechanisms of SARS-CoV-2. PNAS May 26, 2020 117 (21) 11727-11734. doi: 10.1073/pnas.2003138117 Thomas, G. (2002). Furin at the cutting edge: From protein traffic to embryogenesis and disease. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol. 2002 October; 3(10): 753–766 Zhang, Q., et al (2020). Heparan sulfate assists SARS-CoV-2 in cell entry and can be targeted by approved drugs in vitro. Cell Discovery (2020) 6:80. doi: 10.1038/s41421-020-00222-5

For more adventure visit www.hopscotchtheglobe.com From Shawnee Storytelling to exploring Ash Cave to flying a plane, Hocking Hills, Ohio is full of adventure. Follow me on: Facebook - http://www.facebook.com/hopscotchtheglobe Twitter - https://twitter.com/HTGlobe @HTGlobe Travel Blog - http://www.hopscotchtheglobe.com/ Places visited in this video: http://hockinghills.com/AIRTOURS/ http://www.1800hocking.com/ash_cave https://hockinghillsadventuretrek.com/Shawnee_Storytelling.html A special thanks to: Amy Weirick and Jamie Wright http://www.weirickcommunications.com/ Music in this video is provided by: Kevin MacLeod - Thunderhead & Danse Macabre http://incompetech.com/m/c/royalty-free/ Licensed under Creative Commons: By Attribution 3.0 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ Audio Jungle - http://audiojungle.net/

To start using Tab for a Cause, go to: http://tabforacause.org/minuteearth2 You might already know that proteins are a fundamental part of your diet, but they re much more than that. LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: - Amino acids: are organic compounds that contain amino (–NH2) and carboxyl (–COOH) functional groups, along with a side chain specific to each amino acid. - Proteins: are macromolecules composed of one or more long chains of amino acid residues. Most proteins fold into unique 3D structures. The shape into which a protein naturally folds is known as its native conformation. - Alpha helix (α-helix): is a common motif in the secondary structure of proteins and is a right hand-helix conformation in which every backbone N−H group hydrogen bonds to the backbone C=O group of the amino acid located four residues earlier along the protein sequence. - Beta sheet (β-sheet): is a common motif of the regular protein secondary structure and consists of beta strands (β-strands) connected laterally by at least two or three backbone hydrogen bonds, forming a generally twisted, pleated sheet. - Ribbon diagrams: are 3D schematic representations of protein structure that shows the overall path and organization of the protein backbone in 3D. Ribbon diagrams are generated by interpolating a smooth curve through the polypeptide backbone. α-helices are shown as coiled ribbons or thick tubes, β-strands as arrows, and non-repetitive coils or loops as lines or thin tubes. CREDITS ********* Ever Salazar | Co-Writer, Narrator, Illustrator and Director David Wych | Co-writer and Consultant Aldo de Vos, Know Art | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia Rius • David Goldenberg Julián Gustavo Gómez • Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich Henry Reich • Peter Reich • Leonardo Souza Ever Salazar • Kate Yoshida OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 OTHER CREDITS & REFERENCES ********************************** Goodsell, David (2006). Visual Methods from Atoms to Cells. Structure 13, Issue 3:347-354. doi:10.1016/j.str.2005.01.012 Protein 3D images created using Mol* (https://molstar.org/) and structure data from RCSB PDB (https://www.rcsb.org/) Mol* (D. Sehnal, A.S. Rose, J. Kovca, S.K. Burley, S. Velankar (2018) Mol*: Towards a common library and tools for web molecular graphics MolVA/EuroVis Proceedings. doi:10.2312/molva.20181103) Villin folding trajectory by Stefan Doerr - https://figshare.com/authors/Stefan_Doerr/748688 Clathrin Structure (PDB ID: 3IYV) Fotin, A., et al (2004). Molecular model for a complete clathrin lattice from electron cryomicroscopy. Nature 432: 573-579. doi:10.1038/nature03079 Immunoglobulin Structure (PDB IDs: 1IGT & 1IGY) Harris, L.J., et al (1998). Crystallographic structure of an intact IgG1 monoclonal antibody. J Mol Biol 275: 861-872. doi:10.1006/jmbi.1997.1508 ATP Synthase Structure (PDB IDs: 5ARE, 5ARI & 5FIL) Zhou, A., et al (2015). Structure and conformational states of the bovine mitochondrial ATP synthase by cryo-EM. ELife, 4. doi:10.7554/eLife.10180 RCSB PDB Molecule of the Month by David S. Goodsell (The Scripps Research Institute and the RCSB PDB) - https://pdb101.rcsb.org/motm/72 Photosystem II (PDB ID: 5XNL) Su, X., et al (2017). Structure and assembly mechanism of plant C2S2M2-type PSII-LHCII supercomplex. Science 357: 815-820. doi:10.1126/science.aan0327 Ribonuclease (PDB ID: 2AAS) Santoro, J., et al (1993). High-resolution three-dimensional structure of ribonuclease A in solution by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. J Mol Biol 229: 722-734. doi:10.1006/jmbi.1993.1075 Myosin (PDB ID: 1B7T) Houdusse, A., et al (1999). Atomic structure of scallop myosin subfragment S1 complexed with MgADP: a novel conformation of the myosin head. Cell 97: 459-470. doi:10.1016/s0092-8674(00)80756-4

Get 10% off all orders with code MINUTEEARTH now through May 31. After that, code is valid on 6" and 8.5" only. Shop now on https://bit.ly/MinuteEarthGlobes. All over the world, giant wave breaks appear because of underwater geology that supercharges their wave energy. LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: Amplitude - The distance between the crest and trough of a wave. Bathymetry - The measurement of depth of water in oceans, seas, or lakes. Nazaré Canyon - An undersea canyon just off the coast of Nazaré, Portugal, in the eastern North Atlantic Ocean. It is the largest submarine canyon in Europe, reaching depths of about 5,000 meters (16,000 ft) deep and a length of about 230 kilometers (140 mi). Plunging Breaker - Occurs when there are rapid depth changes. The crest of the wave becomes very steep, and the rear of the wave violently plunges over the front. Reef Break - A location where waves break over a reef, often amplifying them. Spilling Breaker - Occurs when the seafloor slopes gradually. As the wave becomes unstable, energy is dissipated by water spilling over the crest of the wave. Swell - a slow, regular movement of the sea in rolling waves that do not break. Wave period - The time between waves. SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* Cameron Duke | Script Writer Kate Yoshida | Narrator David Goldenberg | Director Sarah Berman | Illustration, Video Editing, and Animation Nathaniel Schroeder | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia Rius David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich Peter Reich • Ever Salazar • Kate Yoshida OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** Babanin, A. V., Rogers, W. E., de Camargo, R., Doble, M., Durrant, T., Filchuk, K., Ewans, K., Hemer, M., Janssen, T., Kelly-Gerreyn, B., Machutchon, K., McComb, P., Qiao, F., Schulz, E., Skvortsov, A., Thomson, J., Vichi, M., Violante-Carvalho, N., Wang, D., & Waseda, T. (2019). Waves and Swells in High Wind and Extreme Fetches, Measurements in the Southern Ocean. Frontiers in Marine Science, 6. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2019.00361 Editor At Surfertoday.com. (2013, November 5). The canyon that makes waves. Surfertoday; SurferToday.com | The Ultimate Surfing News Website. Retrieved from: https://www.surfertoday.com/surfing/the-canyon-that-makes-waves Griffiths, L. S., & Porter, R. (2012). Focusing of surface waves by variable bathymetry. Applied Ocean Research, 34, 150–163. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apor.2011.08.004 Inman, D. (2021). Living with Coastal Change - Coastal Basics - Wave Refraction Model - Jaws, Hawaii. Ucsd.edu. Retrieved from: http://coastalchange.ucsd.edu/st3_basics/p_waverefrac.html#bathymetric_map Keating, S. (2020, January 6). The story of a wave: from wind-blown ripples to breaking on the beach. The Conversation. Retrieved from: https://theconversation.com/the-story-of-a-wave-from-wind-blown-ripples-to-breaking-on-the-beach-128458 Pedro Proença Cunha, & Margarida, M. (2015, February). The Nazaré coast, the submarine canyon and the giant waves - a synthesis. ResearchGate; Universidade de Coimbra. Retrieved from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/275522569_The_Nazare_coast_the_submarine_canyon_and_the_giant_waves_-_a_synthesis Pinet, P. R. (2009). Invitation to oceanography (5th ed.). Jones & Bartlett Learning. The generation and propagation of ocean waves and swell. I. Wave periods and velocities | Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences. (2017). Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences. Retrieved from: https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsta.1948.0005 Warner, S. (2020). What makes the world’s biggest surfable waves? The Conversation. Retrieved from: https://theconversation.com/what-makes-the-worlds-biggest-surfable-waves-150600 Warner, S. (2021). Department of Environmental Studies, Brandeis University. Personal Communication. Homepage: https://www.brandeis.edu/facultyguide/person.html?emplid=6cf46554ff6936fa51d9e22d0414e63798a5c4a1

Become smarter in 5 minutes by signing up for free today: http://cen.yt/mbminuteearth - Thanks to Morning Brew for sponsoring today’s video. Because there are so many different types of penises among our evolutionary relatives, we didn’t know until a recent discovery whether they all had the same origin. LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: - Amniote: Vertebrates whose embryos are enclosed in a thin sac. - Cloaca: A posterior orifice used for excretion and reproduction. - Cloacal Kiss: A method that penisless amniotes use to mate, which involves males and females momentarily pressing their cloacae together. - Tuatara: Reptiles endemic to New Zealand that are the only surviving members of their ancient amniote group. - Hemipenis: One of the paired copulatory organs of lizards and snakes. - Bmp4: A protein that, when present, stifles the growth of penises in chick embryos. - Convergent Evolution: The independent evolution of similar features in different species. SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* Emily Willingham | Script Writer David Goldenberg | Script Editor & Narrator Adam Thompson | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation Ever Salazar | Director Nathaniel Schroeder | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia i Rius David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich • Peter Reich Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** Ortiz-Ospina, E. (2017). “Life Expectancy” – What does this actually mean?. Our World In Data. Retrieved from: https://ourworldindata.org/life-expectancy-how-is-it-calculated-and-how-should-it-be-interpreted. Dendy, Arthur. 1899. “Memoirs: Outlines of the Development of the Tuatara, Sphenodon (Hatteria) punctatus.” Journal of Cell Science s2-42: 1–87. Cree, Alison. 2014. Tuatara: Biology and Conservation of a Venerable Survivor. Christchurch, New Zealand: Canterbury University Press. Gans, Carl, James C. Gillingham, and David Lang Clark. 1984. “Courtship, Mating and Male Combat in Tuatara, Sphenodon punctatus.” Journal of Herpetology 18 (2): 194–97. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.2307/1563749. Sanger, Thomas J., Marissa L. Gredler, and Martin J. Cohn. 2015. “Resurrecting Embryos of the Tuatara, Sphenodon punctatus, to Resolve Vertebrate Phallus Evolution.” Biology Letters 11 (10): pii: 20150694. REtreieved from: https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2015.0694. Herrera, Ana María, Simone G. Shuster, Claire L. Perriton, and Martin J. Cohn. 2013. “Developmental Basis of Phallus Reduction During Bird Evolution.” Current Biology 23 (12): 1065–74. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2013.04.062. Brennan, Patricia L. R. 2016a. “Evolution: One Penis After All.” Current Biology 26: R29–R31. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2015.11.024. Willingham, Emily. 2020. Fallacy: Life Lessons from the Animal Penis. Avery. Retrieved from: https://www.amazon.com/Phallacy-Life-Lessons-Animal-Penis/dp/0593087178

WE MADE A BOOK! It’s packed with the clever explanations, adorable illustrations, and quirky humor you love from MinuteEarth – all in hard-cover form! Explore science and fun facts about animals, plants, microbes and more from all over Earth (and beyond). Pre-order a copy for yourself, your kids, your grandma, your mail carrier…anyone that shares our wonderful and weird planet. DTFBA (get SUPER-cool book bundles here!): https://store.dftba.com/collections/minuteearth Amazon - http://bit.ly/MinuteEarthExplains Bookshop.org - http://bit.ly/MinuteEarthexplains Barnes and Noble - http://bit.ly/Minuteearthexplains Indigo (Canada)- http://bit.ly/MinuteearthExplains SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* Kate Yoshida | Script Writer, Narrator and Director Sarah Berman | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation Nathaniel Schroeder | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia i Rius David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich • Peter Reich Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts | https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176

Start speaking a new language in 3 weeks with Babbel 🎉. Get up to 65% OFF ➡️ Here: https://go.babbel.com/12m65-youtube-minuteearth-july-2021/default It’s not just how much you take in; it’s how fast your body can purge it. LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: Poison: A substance that is capable of causing illness or death when introduced or absorbed. Overdose: A dangerously large dose of a substance. Biotransformation: The process by which foreign chemicals are transformed by the body into less toxic substances. Polydipsia: The medical term for feelings of extreme thirst that can lead to hyponatremia. Hyponatremia: Abnormally low sodium in the blood often caused by excessive water consumption. Lethal Concentration - The concentration a substance needs to be in the bloodstream to kill 50% of subjects. Metabolism - the chemical processes that occur within a living organism in order to maintain life. Toxicity - the quality of being toxic or poisonous. Excretion - the process of eliminating or expelling waste matter. SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* Cameron Duke (@dukeofcam) | Script Writer David Goldenberg (@dgoldenberg) | Narrator and Director Arcadi Garcia i Rius (@garirius) | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation Nathaniel Schroeder | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia i Rius David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich • Peter Reich Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** ATSDR. (2006). Toxicological Profile for Cyanide. https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp8-c3.pdf Cyanide Fact. (2013). Johns Hopkins Center for Health Security. https://www.centerforhealthsecurity.org/our-work/publications/cyanide-fact-sheet Lead (Pb) Toxicity: What is the Biological Fate of Lead in the Body? | Environmental Medicine | ATSDR. (2021, February 9). Cdc.gov. https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/csem/leadtoxicity/biologic_fate.html Lethal Doses of Water, Caffeine and Alcohol. (2014, July 27). Compound Interest. https://www.compoundchem.com/2014/07/27/lethaldoses/ Radcliffe, S. (2017, May 25). How You Can Die From a Caffeine Overdose. Healthline; Healthline Media. https://www.healthline.com/health-news/how-you-can-die-from-caffeine#Caffeine-overdose-is-rare Shalat, S. (2016, February 4). Toxic lead can stay in the body for years after exposure. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/toxic-lead-can-stay-in-the-body-for-years-after-exposure-53607 Shenvi, C. (2016, February 16). Hydroxocobalamin: Turning Cyanide into Vitamin B12 | Emergency Physicians Monthly. Emergency Physicians Monthly | EPM. https://epmonthly.com/article/hydroxocobalamin-turning-cyanide-into-vitamin-b12/

Watch the new season of MinuteBody - and get access to both CuriosityStream and Nebula - at http://www.curiositystream.com/minuteearth. Sharks wouldn’t be known for their fierce teeth today if it weren’t for their ancient scales. LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: Dermal denticles: also called placoid scales, they’re the most primitive form of fish scales that are structurally similar to teeth and are today found only in sharks, rays, and chimaeras. Outside-in theory: The strongest theory for the evolution of teeth, which are thought to have evolved from dermal denticle scales. Ostracoderms: Extinct armored jawless fish that lived in the Paleozoic Era Thelodonts: Extinct jawless fish that had individual scales as opposed to plates of armor Placoderms: Now extinct, they were some of the first jawed fish and lived from the Silurian through the Devonian era. SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* Julián Gustavo Gómez (@thejuliangomez) | Script Writer, Narrator and Director Kate Yoshida | Co-Director Arcadi Garcia i Rius (@garirius) | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation Nathaniel Schroeder | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia i Rius David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich • Peter Reich Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** Donoghue, Philip CJ, and Martin Rücklin. "The ins and outs of the evolutionary origin of teeth." Evolution & development 18.1 (2016): 19-30. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/ede.12099 Fraser, Gareth J., et al. "The odontode explosion: the origin of tooth‐like structures in vertebrates." Bioessays 32.9 (2010): 808-817. https://authors.library.caltech.edu/20188/3/nihms266189.pdf Huysseune, Ann, Jean‐Yves Sire, and P. Eckhard Witten. "Evolutionary and developmental origins of the vertebrate dentition." Journal of Anatomy 214.4 (2009): 465-476. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2736119/ Pennisi, Elizabeth. "Eating Was Tough For Early Tetrapods." (2013): 390-391. https://science.sciencemag.org/content/339/6118/390.full

Offset your carbon footprint with Wren! They ll plant 10 extra trees for each of the first 100 people who sign up at https://www.wren.co/start/minuteearth. Because smaller animals have to eat more relative to their bodyweight, Tolkein’s hobbits need to eat a lot - not for comfort, but for survival. LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: Metabolism: The chemical processes that occur within a living organism in order to maintain life. Square-cube Law: A mathematical principle which describes the relationship between the volume and the surface area as a shape s size increases or decreases. Kleiber’s Law: The observation that, for the vast majority of animals, an animal s metabolic rate scales to the 3⁄4 power of the animal s mass. Calorie: Unit of energy. One food calorie equals 1 kilocalorie. SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* Cameron Duke | Script Writer David Goldenberg | Script Editor, Narrator and Director Adam Thompson | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation Nathaniel Schroeder | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia i Rius David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich • Peter Reich Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** Kleiber, M. (1947). BODY SIZE AND METABOLIC RATE. Physiological Reviews, 27(4), 511–541. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1152/physrev.1947.27.4.511. Dawson, N. (1967). The Surface-Area/Body-Weight Relationship in Mice. Australian Journal of Biological Sciences, 20(3), 687. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1071/bi9670687. How Much Does an Elephant Weigh? (2019, September 26). Wonderopolis.org. Retrieved from: https://wonderopolis.org/wonder/how-much-does-an-elephant-weigh Thommen, Albert, et al. “Body Size-Dependent Energy Storage Causes Kleiber’s Law Scaling of the Metabolic Rate in Planarians.” (2019) ELife, eLife Sciences Publications, Ltd, 4 Jan. 2019. Retrieved from: http://www.elifesciences.org/articles/38187. West, G. B., Brown, J. H., & Enquist, B. J. (1997). A General Model for the Origin of Allometric Scaling Laws in Biology. Science, 276(5309), 122–126. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1126/science.276.5309.122.